U.S. Power & Environment is an American multinational privately owned company that sells various construction services and products worldwide. The company is most widely known for providing other companies with diesel generators/diesel engines such as Caterpillar, Cummins and Baldor. Currently, the company specializes in the trading of used and new diesel generators, the building of data centers, equipment rental, and other various construction related services and products. In addition to electrical generators, the company sells millions of dollars in parts including oil filters, coolant and air filters. Today more than 68% of USP&E's business comes from operations outside of the United States. Part of USP&E's model is to create partnerships with key players in foreign markets and they have done so recently in China and India. USP&E's 2007 revenues surpassed $9,000,000.00 USD.
History
USP&E began in the spring of 1968, when Jim Fraser started what is today USP&E RentalUSP&E Rental. USP&E rental, (dba Bloomington Rental Center), is based in Bloomington, Minnesota. In 2002, Will Gruver founded US Power & Environment in order to sell, rent, service and install diesel and natural gas generators world-wide. Jim Fraser retired in June 2003. He sold Bloomington Rental Center to Will Gruver, who took on the role of CEO. Later, he gave the company its name that still stands today of USP&E Rental. In 2007, U.S. Power & Environment expanded its headquarters to Dallas, Texas. In 2008, USP&E expanded its base to Africa, turning its international presence into a multinational corporation.
2009年1月22日星期四
Cummins
Cummins Inc. (NYSE: CMI) is a corporation of complementary business units that design, manufacture, distribute and service diesel and natural gas engines and related technologies, including fuel systems, controls, air handling, filtration, emission solutions and electrical power generation systems. Headquartered in Columbus, Indiana, USA Cummins serves its customers through a network of more than 500 Company-owned and independent distributor locations and approximately 5,200 dealer locations in more than 190 countries and territories. Cummins reported net chirp income of $739 million on sales of $13 billion in 2007.
Today more than 51% of Cummins' business comes from operations outside of the United States. Part of Cummins model is to create partnerships with key players in foreign markets and they have done so recently in China and India.
History
Cummins is named after inventor-mechanic Clessie Cummins, who was one of the key players in the founding of the company. He was financially backed by investor William Irwin, starting in 1918, as he improved on existing diesel engine designs.
Subsidiaries/Business Units
Cummins Turbo Technologies (formerly Holset)
The Holset Engineering Co. was a British company that produced turbochargers, primarily for diesel and heavy duty applications. The company had its roots in 1948, when W. C. Holmes became interested in Louis Croset's flexible coupler design. The company started when Paul Croset was convinced to start up and manage the venture, which was based in Huddersfield, England. Holset as we know it came into existence in 1952 as a limited corporation, with the name coming from the first half of Holmes and the last half of Croset.
In 1973 the company was purchased by Cummins after briefly being owned by the Hanson Trust, and continued to expand for the next thirty years. Holset now operates facilities in China, India, Brazil, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States.
In 2006, the division officially changed its name to Cummins Turbo Technologies to be identified more closely with its parent company. The turbocharger products still use the Holset brand name.
Cummins Filtration (formerly Fleetguard)
Cummins Filtration is headquartered in Nashville, Tennessee, USA and operates facilities in nine other countries around the world. The Filtration Business Unit of Cummins produces filtration products for the diesel and gas markets. Products include oil, fuel filter, coolant, and air filters. The division officially changed its name to Cummins Filtration but continues to brand products under the Fleetguard name.
Cummins Emission Solutions (formerly Nelson)
Exhaust and emissions after-treatment company Nelson Industries was purchased in 1999 due to the increasing importance of exhaust after-treatment systems for meeting future emissions standards. The division officially changed its name to Cummins Emission Solutions to be identified more closely with their parent company.
Cummins Power Generation (formerly Onan)
Power Generation Business Unit is Cummins' second-largest business segment. This business unit manufactures, sells and services power generation and related equipment, such as alternators, around the world for commercial and consumer use.
Saga Ruby
MS Saga Ruby is a cruise ship owned and operated by Saga Cruises. She was built as the combined ocean liner/cruise ship MS Vistafjord in 1973 by Swan Hunter Shipbuilders in the United Kingdom for the Norwegian America Line. In 1983 she was sold to Cunard Line, retaining her original name until 1999 when she was renamed MS Caronia. In 2004 she was sold to her current owners.
Concept and construction
The Vistafjord was ordered by Norwegian America Line (NAL) from Swan Hunter Shipbuilders, Newcastle, United Kindgom. She was based on the company's 1966-built MS Sagafjord, but with an enlarged hull, additional superstructure deck and improved interior layout. However, as the cost of building the Sagafjord had put her builders, Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee, out of busines, the Vistafjord had to be built at a different shipyward.[citation needed] Like the Sagafjord, the Vistafjord was built with the hull strength and baggage-handling facilities required for ocean liner service across the North Atlantic. She was launched on 15 May 1972 and delivered to the Norwegian America Line exactly a year later on 15 May 1973.
Service history
On 22 May 1973 the Vistafjord set on her maiden voyage, a transatlantic crossing from Oslo to New York. After this initial crossing she was used exclusively in cruise service from New York to the Bahamas. At the time the Norwegian-flagged Vistafjord was considered to be amongst the most luxurious cruise ships in the world, sharing the top 5 in Berlitz Complete Guide to Cruising with the Sagafjord and Royal Viking Line's Royal Viking Star, Royal Viking Sky and Royal Viking Sea for several years.
Although their ships were high-rated, Norwegian America Line had trouble making profit. In 1983 Trafalgar House, the owners of Cunard Line, purchased NAL and in October 1983 the Vistafjord joined the Cunard fleet. She retained her original name and the grey NAL hull colour, but received Cunard Line funnel colours and was re-registered to the Bahamas.Despite the flag change she retained Norwegian command staff.
In 1999 the decision was made to rename the Vistafjord with a more traditional Cunard Line name. On 10 December 1999 she was renamed MS Caronia and re-registered in the United Kingdom. She continued service with Cunard until November 2004, when she was sold to Saga Cruises. Following a £17 million refit at Valletta, Malta the Caronia reappeared as MS Saga Ruby in March 2005.In the Saga Cruises fleet she joined her former Norwegian America Line fleetmate Sagafjord (now named Saga Rose).
Design
Exterior design
The Vistafjord was built with a very traditional ocean liner profile, with the funnel placed amidship and a notable sheer on her hull. The superstructure is terraced both at the fore and aft of the ship. In two refits during her Cunard Line career additional structures were added to the rear and top of the superstructure.
In Norwegian America Line service the Vistafjord carried the traditional NAL livery, with a grey hull, white superstructure, yellow mast and a yellow funnel with red, white and blue (colours of the flag of Norway) stripes. Following sale to Cunard she retained the grey hull colour, but her funnel was painted in the red/black Cunard colours and her mast white. A red "Cunard" text was later added to her superstructure. Coinciding with her renaming into Caronia in 1999 the ship's hull was repainted black. As Saga Ruby her hull was repainted dark blue and her funnel yellow, with a dark blue top and a narrow white stripe separing the two colours.
EMD GP40-based passenger diesels
The General Motors Electro-Motive Division (EMD) GP40 diesel locomotive, in its "normal" configuration, was primarily used in freight service. The basic GP40 platform, however, also proved attractive to building derivatives for passenger service, which required extra components for providing steam or HEP for heating, lighting and electricity in passenger cars.
GP40P-2
The Southern Pacific had ordered three units on a variant called GP40P-2. The SP placed the units in San Francisco commuter service. When the SP got out of the commuter business the units found themselves working in freight service; they continue to do so today; two for the Union Pacific and one for the Indiana Harbor Belt. The UP has repainted one of the units into UP Armour Yellow, while the other is "patched" and sports an all SP grey paint job, albeit extremely faded.
GP40TC
The GP40TC was built for GO Transit in Toronto, Ontario (The 'TC' stood for 'Toronto Commuter'). After serving GO for many years (being replaced by various units including GP40-2W's and more recently, F59PH's) the units were sold to Amtrak. For Amtrak service the 575 volt HEP engine / generator set was replaced with one for 480 volt HEP. The units were based out of Chicago and used on short-haul trains. Currently the units are used for MOW service and have been rebuilt into "GP38-H3" units for Amtrak by Norfolk Southern.
GP40P
The GP40P is based on the design of the EMD GP40 locomotive. Most of these variants gave the unit flared side radiators similar to the EMD SD45. Thirteen GP40Ps numbered 3671-3683 were built in October 1968 for the Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ) and paid for by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. The CNJ put the units in service on the Raritan Valley Line and the North Jersey Coast Line (New York & Long Branch).
The CNJ was folded into Conrail in 1976, and in 1983, New Jersey Transit began operating passenger rail service in the state. Shortly after, the steam generator, which had occupied the flat end of the locomotive's long hood, was replaced with a diesel HEP generator, and the units were reclassified as GP40PH. They would later be rebuilt as GP40PH-2 units in 1991-92.
GP40PH-2, GP40PH-2A, GP40PH-2B
In 1991-92, NJ Transit sent its ex-CNJ GP40PH units out for rebuilding. The units were rebuilt as GP40PH-2 locomotives and, with the exception of 4101, renumbered out of order. At this time, the units were restricted on the Newark Division and primarily kept to the Hoboken Division. By 1999, the units were often used on the Pascack Valley Line service, as they were the only units equipped with the Speed Enforcement System equipment needed on the line. They are now found mainly on the Hoboken Division.
New Jersey Transit would later order two more sets of GP40PH-2 units; these units were rebuilt from former freight GP40 units, not from GP40P units as the first order has been. The first order (GP40PH-2A) in 1993 consisted of six units, numbered 4145-4150, and were rebuilt by Morrison-Knudsen. These units, with the exception of 4148, which was rebuilt as a GP40PH-2B and renumbered after a collision, are classified as GP40PH-2A, though the units lack the "A" designation on their stenciling. The second order in 1993-94 was rebuilt by Conrail, and was for 19 former Penn Central units, numbered 4200-4218. These units are classified as GP40PH-2B. A twentieth unit, the GP40PH-2A numbered 4148 wrecked in 1996, was also rebuilt into this class and renumbered 4219 in 1997.
Metro-North ordered a single GP40PH-2 unit; numbered 4190, it is officially classified as a GP40PH-2M. 4190 was rebuilt by Conrail in 1992.
Antarctic Snow Cruiser
The Antarctic Snow Cruiser was a vehicle designed from 1937 to 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter, intended to facilitate transport in the Antarctic. While having several innovative features, it generally failed to operate as hoped under the difficult conditions, and was eventually abandoned in Antarctica. Rediscovered under a deep layer of snow in 1958, it later disappeared again due to shifting ice conditions.
History
Design and construction
On April 29, 1939, Poulter and The Research Foundation of the Armour Institute of Technology showed the plans to officials in Washington, D.C.. The Research Foundation would finance the cost and oversee the construction, and then loan the vehicle to the United States Antarctic Service. Work began on August 8, 1939 and lasted for 11 weeks. On October 24, 1939, the vehicle was fired-up for the first time at the Pullman Company in Gary, Indiana (near Chicago) and began the 1,640 km (1,020 mile) journey to the Boston Army Wharf. During the trip, a damaged steering system caused the vehicle to drive off a small bridge on the Lincoln Highway and into a stream near the town of Gomer, Ohio near Lima, Ohio, where it remained for 3 days. After it arrived in Boston, it departed for Antarctica on November 15, 1939 aboard the ship the North Star.
Arrival in the Antarctic
The Snow Cruiser arrived in Bay of Whales, Little America, Antarctica in early January 1940 and experienced many problems. It was necessary to construct a ramp from timber to unload the vehicle. As the vehicle was unloaded from the ship, one of the wheels broke though the ramp. The crew cheered when Poulter powered the vehicle free from the ramp but the cheers fell silent when the vehicle failed to move through the snow and ice. The large, smooth, tread-less tires were originally designed for a large swamp vehicle; they spun freely and provided very little forward movement, sinking as much a 3 feet into the snow. The crew attached the two spare tires to the front wheels of the vehicle and installed chains on the rear wheels, but were unable to overcome the lack of traction. The crew later found that the tires produced more traction when driven backwards. The longest trek was 92 miles -- driven completely in reverse. On January 24, 1940, Poulter returned to the US, leaving F. Alton Wade in charge of a partial crew. The scientists conducted seismologic experiments, cosmic-ray measurements, and ice core sampling while living in the snow- and timber-covered Snow Cruiser. Funding for the project was canceled as the focus in the United States became World War II.
Rediscovery and final fate
In the late 1940s, an expedition team found the vehicle and discovered it needed only air in the tires and some servicing to make it operational. In 1958, an international expedition uncovered the snow cruiser using a bulldozer. It was covered by several feet of snow but a long bamboo pole marked its position. They were able to dig down to the location of the bottom of the wheels and accurately measure the amount of snowfall since it was abandoned. Inside, the vehicle was exactly as the crew had left it, with papers, magazines, and cigarettes scattered all around. Later expeditions reported no trace of the vehicle. Although there was some unsubstantiated speculation that the (traction-less) Snow Cruiser was taken by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the vehicle most likely is either at the bottom of the Southern Ocean or buried deep under snow and ice. Antarctic ice is in constant motion and the ice shelf is constantly moving out to sea. In the mid-1960s, a large chunk of the Ross Ice Shelf broke off and drifted away; the break occurred right through Little America. It is not known on which side of the ice shelf the Snow Cruiser was located.
Specifications
Length: 17.0 meters (55 feet 8 inches)
Width: 6.06 meters (19 feet 10.5 inches)
Height (wheels retracted): 3.7 meters (12 feet)
Height (wheels extended): 4.9 meters (16 feet)
Fully-loaded Weight: 34,000 kg (75,000 pounds)
Range: 5,000 miles
Maximum Speed: 48 km/hour (30 miles/hour)
Self-Sufficiency: 1 year under the most extreme conditions
Fuel Capacity: 9,463 liters (2,500 US gallons) stored under the floor
Additional Fuel Capacity: 3,785 liters (1,000 US gallons) stored on the roof, to be used by the plane
Crew Size: 5 people
Estimated Final Cost: $300,000
Cabin Compartments: control cabin, machine shop, combination kitchen/darkroom, storage for fuel, food, two spare tires
Powertrain Specifications
Powertrain Configuration: Diesel-Electric Hybrid (2 diesel engines, 2 generators, 4 electric motors)
Diesel Engine Model: Cummins H-6 engine
Diesel Engine Power Rating: 112 kW (150 horsepower) @ 1800 rpm -- 224 kW (300 horsepower) total combined power for 2 engines
Diesel Engine Configuration: 6-cylinder inline; naturally aspirated
Diesel Engine Displacement: 11.0 liters (672 cubic inches)
Diesel Engine Bore and Stroke: 124 mm (4 7/8 inch) bore x 152 mm (6 inch) stroke
Electric Generator Manufacturer: General Electric
Electric Drive Motor Manufacturer: General Electric
Electric Drive Motor Power Rating: 56 kW (75 horsepower) -- 224 kW (300 horsepower) total combined power for 4 motors
Tire Manufacturer: Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
Tire Dimensions: 3048 mm (120 inch) outer diameter x 1676 mm (66 inch) inner diameter x 851 mm (33.5 inch) width
Innovative Features
Wheels and tires retracted into housings where they were heated by engine exhaust gases. This was to prevent low-temperature cracking of the natural rubber compound.
Long front and rear overhangs on the body were to assist with crossing crevasses up to 15 feet wide. The front wheels were to be retracted so the front could be pushed across the crevasse. The front wheels were then to be extended (and the rear wheels retracted) to pull the vehicle the rest of the way across. This process required a complicated, 20-step procedure.
A pad on top of the vehicle was designed to hold a small aircraft (a 5-passenger Beechcraft biplane.) A winch would pull the aircraft into place. The plane was to be used to conduct aerial surveys.
Engine coolant circulated through the entire cabin for heating. The heating system was very efficient and the crew reported that they needed only light blankets when sleeping.
Excess electrical power could be stored in batteries for running lights and equipment when the engine was not running.
The Diesel-Electric drive train allowed for smaller engines and more space for the crew, due to the elimination of large mechanical drive components throughout the vehicle. This is possibly the first application of a diesel-electric powertrain in a 4-wheeled vehicle of this size; this design is now common in large modern mining trucks.
History
Design and construction
On April 29, 1939, Poulter and The Research Foundation of the Armour Institute of Technology showed the plans to officials in Washington, D.C.. The Research Foundation would finance the cost and oversee the construction, and then loan the vehicle to the United States Antarctic Service. Work began on August 8, 1939 and lasted for 11 weeks. On October 24, 1939, the vehicle was fired-up for the first time at the Pullman Company in Gary, Indiana (near Chicago) and began the 1,640 km (1,020 mile) journey to the Boston Army Wharf. During the trip, a damaged steering system caused the vehicle to drive off a small bridge on the Lincoln Highway and into a stream near the town of Gomer, Ohio near Lima, Ohio, where it remained for 3 days. After it arrived in Boston, it departed for Antarctica on November 15, 1939 aboard the ship the North Star.
Arrival in the Antarctic
The Snow Cruiser arrived in Bay of Whales, Little America, Antarctica in early January 1940 and experienced many problems. It was necessary to construct a ramp from timber to unload the vehicle. As the vehicle was unloaded from the ship, one of the wheels broke though the ramp. The crew cheered when Poulter powered the vehicle free from the ramp but the cheers fell silent when the vehicle failed to move through the snow and ice. The large, smooth, tread-less tires were originally designed for a large swamp vehicle; they spun freely and provided very little forward movement, sinking as much a 3 feet into the snow. The crew attached the two spare tires to the front wheels of the vehicle and installed chains on the rear wheels, but were unable to overcome the lack of traction. The crew later found that the tires produced more traction when driven backwards. The longest trek was 92 miles -- driven completely in reverse. On January 24, 1940, Poulter returned to the US, leaving F. Alton Wade in charge of a partial crew. The scientists conducted seismologic experiments, cosmic-ray measurements, and ice core sampling while living in the snow- and timber-covered Snow Cruiser. Funding for the project was canceled as the focus in the United States became World War II.
Rediscovery and final fate
In the late 1940s, an expedition team found the vehicle and discovered it needed only air in the tires and some servicing to make it operational. In 1958, an international expedition uncovered the snow cruiser using a bulldozer. It was covered by several feet of snow but a long bamboo pole marked its position. They were able to dig down to the location of the bottom of the wheels and accurately measure the amount of snowfall since it was abandoned. Inside, the vehicle was exactly as the crew had left it, with papers, magazines, and cigarettes scattered all around. Later expeditions reported no trace of the vehicle. Although there was some unsubstantiated speculation that the (traction-less) Snow Cruiser was taken by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the vehicle most likely is either at the bottom of the Southern Ocean or buried deep under snow and ice. Antarctic ice is in constant motion and the ice shelf is constantly moving out to sea. In the mid-1960s, a large chunk of the Ross Ice Shelf broke off and drifted away; the break occurred right through Little America. It is not known on which side of the ice shelf the Snow Cruiser was located.
Specifications
Length: 17.0 meters (55 feet 8 inches)
Width: 6.06 meters (19 feet 10.5 inches)
Height (wheels retracted): 3.7 meters (12 feet)
Height (wheels extended): 4.9 meters (16 feet)
Fully-loaded Weight: 34,000 kg (75,000 pounds)
Range: 5,000 miles
Maximum Speed: 48 km/hour (30 miles/hour)
Self-Sufficiency: 1 year under the most extreme conditions
Fuel Capacity: 9,463 liters (2,500 US gallons) stored under the floor
Additional Fuel Capacity: 3,785 liters (1,000 US gallons) stored on the roof, to be used by the plane
Crew Size: 5 people
Estimated Final Cost: $300,000
Cabin Compartments: control cabin, machine shop, combination kitchen/darkroom, storage for fuel, food, two spare tires
Powertrain Specifications
Powertrain Configuration: Diesel-Electric Hybrid (2 diesel engines, 2 generators, 4 electric motors)
Diesel Engine Model: Cummins H-6 engine
Diesel Engine Power Rating: 112 kW (150 horsepower) @ 1800 rpm -- 224 kW (300 horsepower) total combined power for 2 engines
Diesel Engine Configuration: 6-cylinder inline; naturally aspirated
Diesel Engine Displacement: 11.0 liters (672 cubic inches)
Diesel Engine Bore and Stroke: 124 mm (4 7/8 inch) bore x 152 mm (6 inch) stroke
Electric Generator Manufacturer: General Electric
Electric Drive Motor Manufacturer: General Electric
Electric Drive Motor Power Rating: 56 kW (75 horsepower) -- 224 kW (300 horsepower) total combined power for 4 motors
Tire Manufacturer: Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
Tire Dimensions: 3048 mm (120 inch) outer diameter x 1676 mm (66 inch) inner diameter x 851 mm (33.5 inch) width
Innovative Features
Wheels and tires retracted into housings where they were heated by engine exhaust gases. This was to prevent low-temperature cracking of the natural rubber compound.
Long front and rear overhangs on the body were to assist with crossing crevasses up to 15 feet wide. The front wheels were to be retracted so the front could be pushed across the crevasse. The front wheels were then to be extended (and the rear wheels retracted) to pull the vehicle the rest of the way across. This process required a complicated, 20-step procedure.
A pad on top of the vehicle was designed to hold a small aircraft (a 5-passenger Beechcraft biplane.) A winch would pull the aircraft into place. The plane was to be used to conduct aerial surveys.
Engine coolant circulated through the entire cabin for heating. The heating system was very efficient and the crew reported that they needed only light blankets when sleeping.
Excess electrical power could be stored in batteries for running lights and equipment when the engine was not running.
The Diesel-Electric drive train allowed for smaller engines and more space for the crew, due to the elimination of large mechanical drive components throughout the vehicle. This is possibly the first application of a diesel-electric powertrain in a 4-wheeled vehicle of this size; this design is now common in large modern mining trucks.
Head end power
Head end power (HEP) or electric train supply (ETS) is a rail transport term for the electrical power distribution system on a passenger train. The power source, usually a locomotive at the front or “head” of a train or a generator car, generates all the electricity used for lightening, electrical and other "hotel" needs. The maritime equivalent is Hotel Electric Power (HEP).
UK
Originally, trains hauled by a steam locomotive would be provided with a supply of steam from the locomotive's boiler for heating the carriages. When diesel locomotives and electric locomotives replaced steam, the steam heating was then supplied by a steam-heat boiler. This was oil-fired (in diesel locomotives) or heated by an electric element (in electric locomotives). Oil-fired steam-heat boilers were appallingly unreliable. They caused more locomotive failures on any class to which they were fitted than any other system or component of the locomotive, and this was a major incentive to adopt a more reliable method of carriage heating.
At this time, lighting was powered by batteries which were charged by a dynamo underneath each carriage when the train was in motion, and buffet cars would use bottled gas for cooking and water heating.
On modern Diesel multiple unit trains, such as the Virgin Trains Voyager, the engine mounted below each vehicle provides power for that vehicle.
Electric Train Heat (ETH) and Electric Train Supply (ETS)
Later diesels and electric locomotives were equipped with Electric Train Heating (ETH) apparatus, which supplied electrical power to the carriages to run electric heating elements installed alongside the steam-heat apparatus, which was retained for use with older locomotives. Later carriage designs abolished the steam-heat apparatus, and made use of the ETH supply not only for heating, but also to power lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, fans, sockets and kitchen equipment in the train. In recognition of this ETH was eventually renamed Electric Train Supply (ETS).
Each coach has an index relating to the maximum consumption of electricity that that coach could use. The sum of all the indices must not exceed the index of the locomotive. One "ETH index unit" equals 5kW; a locomotive with an ETH index of 95 can supply 475kW of electrical power to the train.
USA
During the age of steam, cars were heated by low pressure saturated steam supplied by the locomotive. Electricity for car lighting and ventilation was derived from batteries charged by axle-driven generators on each car or from engine-generator sets mounted under the carbody.
The first advance over this system was developed on the Boston and Maine Railroad, which had placed a number of steam locomotives and passenger cars into dedicated commuter service in Boston. It was discovered that due to the low average speeds and frequent stops characteristic of commuter operation, axle generators did not produce enough output to keep the batteries adequately charged, resulting frequent passenger complaints about lighting and ventilation failures. In response, the railroad fitted higher capacity generators to the locomotives assigned to pull these trains and arranged electrical connections to transmit the generators' output back to the cars. The cars still depended on steam from the locomotive for heating.
When Diesel locomotives were introduced to passenger service, they were equipped with steam generators to provide steam for car heating. However, the use of axle generators and batteries persisted for many years. This started to change in the late 1950s, during which time the Chicago and North Western Railway removed the steam generators from their EMD F7 and E8 locomotives in commuter service and installed Diesel generator sets. This was a natural evolution, as their commuter trains were already receiving low voltage, low amperage power from the locomotives to assist axle generators in maintaining battery charge. In some cases, commuter cars were equipped with propane engine-powered air conditioning. The resulting separate systems of lighting power, steam heat, and engine-driven air conditioning increased the maintenance workload, as well as parts proliferation, thus leading to the full-scale adoption of HEP, where a single power source would handle all these functions.
While commuter fleets were quickly converted to HEP, long distance trains continued to operate with steam heat and battery-powered electrical systems. This gradually changed following the transfer of intercity passenger rail service to Amtrak, ultimately resulting in full adoption of HEP in the USA and the discontinuation of the old systems.
Following its formation in 1971, Amtrak's initial locomotive purchase was the Electro-Motive (EMD) SDP40F, an adaptation of the widely-used SD40-2 3000 horsepower freight locomotive, fitted with a passenger style carbody and steam generating capability. The SDP40F permitted the use of modern motive power in conjunction with the old steam heated passenger rolling stock acquired from private railroads, giving Amtrak time to procure purpose-built cars and locomotives.
In 1975, Amtrak started to take delivery of the all-electric Amfleet car, hauled by General Electric (GE) P30CH and, later, EMD F40PH locomotives, both unit types being equipped to furnish HEP. Following the introduction of the Amfleet fleet, the (also all-electric) Superliner was placed into operation for servicing long-distance western routes. Amtrak subsequently converted a portion of the steam heated fleet to all-electric operation using HEP and retired the remaining unconverted cars.
Engine
The HEP generator can be driven by either a separate engine mounted in the locomotive or generator car, or by the locomotive's prime mover.
Separate engines
Engine types vary, but in the US, they are mainly Caterpillar 3412 V12 and Cummins K-Series Inline 6 models. In the past, Detroit Diesel 8V-71 and 12V-71 engines were also used. Such engine/generator sets are generally installed in a compartment in the rear of the locomotive that is isolated from the main engine room, drawing fuel from the locomotive's fuel tanks.
Smaller under-car engine/generator sets for providing electricity on short trains are also manufactured, Stadco being one popular brand.
Locomotive prime mover
In many applications, the locomotive's prime mover provides both propulsion and head end power. In most cases, the prime mover must run at a constant speed (RPM) to maintain the required 50 Hz or 60 Hz AC line frequency. For example, an EMD locomotive operating in HEP mode will run the prime mover at a constant 900 RPM (which is full RPM), driving the generator at 1500 RPM (50 Hz) or 1800 RPM (60 Hz) through a gearbox. For noise reduction purposes, the locomotive's main (traction) generator can also be configured to supply HEP, usually at 600 or 720 RPM. However, this mode is only available when the locomotive is stationary.
The advent of power electronics has allowed the prime mover to operate over a larger speed range and still supply a constant HEP voltage and frequency by means of inverters.
When derived from the prime mover, HEP is generated at the expense of traction power. For example, the General Electric 3200 horsepower (2.4 MW) P32 and 4000 horsepower (3.0 MW) Genesis-Series P40 locomotives are derated to 2900 (2.2 MW) and 3650 horsepower (2.72 MW), respectively, when supplying HEP.
Electrical loading
HEP power supplies the lighting, HVAC, dining car kitchen and battery charging loads. Individual car electrical loading ranges from 20 kW for a typical car to more than 150 kW for a Dome car with kitchen and dining area, such as Princess Tours Ultra-Dome cars operating in Alaska.
Because of the lengths of trains and the high power requirements, HEP is supplied, in North America, as three-phase AC at 480-V (standard in the US and for Canada's VIA), 575-V (GO Transit, Toronto), or rarely 600-V. Transformers are fitted in each car for reduction to lower voltages.
In the UK, ETS is supplied at 800-V to 1000-V AC/DC two pole (400 or 600-A), 1500-V AC two pole (800-A) or at 415-V 3 phase on the HST
Alternatives
Although most locomotive-hauled trains take power directly from the locomotive, there have been examples (mainly in continental Europe) where restaurant cars would take power directly from the overhead wires.
UK
Originally, trains hauled by a steam locomotive would be provided with a supply of steam from the locomotive's boiler for heating the carriages. When diesel locomotives and electric locomotives replaced steam, the steam heating was then supplied by a steam-heat boiler. This was oil-fired (in diesel locomotives) or heated by an electric element (in electric locomotives). Oil-fired steam-heat boilers were appallingly unreliable. They caused more locomotive failures on any class to which they were fitted than any other system or component of the locomotive, and this was a major incentive to adopt a more reliable method of carriage heating.
At this time, lighting was powered by batteries which were charged by a dynamo underneath each carriage when the train was in motion, and buffet cars would use bottled gas for cooking and water heating.
On modern Diesel multiple unit trains, such as the Virgin Trains Voyager, the engine mounted below each vehicle provides power for that vehicle.
Electric Train Heat (ETH) and Electric Train Supply (ETS)
Later diesels and electric locomotives were equipped with Electric Train Heating (ETH) apparatus, which supplied electrical power to the carriages to run electric heating elements installed alongside the steam-heat apparatus, which was retained for use with older locomotives. Later carriage designs abolished the steam-heat apparatus, and made use of the ETH supply not only for heating, but also to power lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, fans, sockets and kitchen equipment in the train. In recognition of this ETH was eventually renamed Electric Train Supply (ETS).
Each coach has an index relating to the maximum consumption of electricity that that coach could use. The sum of all the indices must not exceed the index of the locomotive. One "ETH index unit" equals 5kW; a locomotive with an ETH index of 95 can supply 475kW of electrical power to the train.
USA
During the age of steam, cars were heated by low pressure saturated steam supplied by the locomotive. Electricity for car lighting and ventilation was derived from batteries charged by axle-driven generators on each car or from engine-generator sets mounted under the carbody.
The first advance over this system was developed on the Boston and Maine Railroad, which had placed a number of steam locomotives and passenger cars into dedicated commuter service in Boston. It was discovered that due to the low average speeds and frequent stops characteristic of commuter operation, axle generators did not produce enough output to keep the batteries adequately charged, resulting frequent passenger complaints about lighting and ventilation failures. In response, the railroad fitted higher capacity generators to the locomotives assigned to pull these trains and arranged electrical connections to transmit the generators' output back to the cars. The cars still depended on steam from the locomotive for heating.
When Diesel locomotives were introduced to passenger service, they were equipped with steam generators to provide steam for car heating. However, the use of axle generators and batteries persisted for many years. This started to change in the late 1950s, during which time the Chicago and North Western Railway removed the steam generators from their EMD F7 and E8 locomotives in commuter service and installed Diesel generator sets. This was a natural evolution, as their commuter trains were already receiving low voltage, low amperage power from the locomotives to assist axle generators in maintaining battery charge. In some cases, commuter cars were equipped with propane engine-powered air conditioning. The resulting separate systems of lighting power, steam heat, and engine-driven air conditioning increased the maintenance workload, as well as parts proliferation, thus leading to the full-scale adoption of HEP, where a single power source would handle all these functions.
While commuter fleets were quickly converted to HEP, long distance trains continued to operate with steam heat and battery-powered electrical systems. This gradually changed following the transfer of intercity passenger rail service to Amtrak, ultimately resulting in full adoption of HEP in the USA and the discontinuation of the old systems.
Following its formation in 1971, Amtrak's initial locomotive purchase was the Electro-Motive (EMD) SDP40F, an adaptation of the widely-used SD40-2 3000 horsepower freight locomotive, fitted with a passenger style carbody and steam generating capability. The SDP40F permitted the use of modern motive power in conjunction with the old steam heated passenger rolling stock acquired from private railroads, giving Amtrak time to procure purpose-built cars and locomotives.
In 1975, Amtrak started to take delivery of the all-electric Amfleet car, hauled by General Electric (GE) P30CH and, later, EMD F40PH locomotives, both unit types being equipped to furnish HEP. Following the introduction of the Amfleet fleet, the (also all-electric) Superliner was placed into operation for servicing long-distance western routes. Amtrak subsequently converted a portion of the steam heated fleet to all-electric operation using HEP and retired the remaining unconverted cars.
Engine
The HEP generator can be driven by either a separate engine mounted in the locomotive or generator car, or by the locomotive's prime mover.
Separate engines
Engine types vary, but in the US, they are mainly Caterpillar 3412 V12 and Cummins K-Series Inline 6 models. In the past, Detroit Diesel 8V-71 and 12V-71 engines were also used. Such engine/generator sets are generally installed in a compartment in the rear of the locomotive that is isolated from the main engine room, drawing fuel from the locomotive's fuel tanks.
Smaller under-car engine/generator sets for providing electricity on short trains are also manufactured, Stadco being one popular brand.
Locomotive prime mover
In many applications, the locomotive's prime mover provides both propulsion and head end power. In most cases, the prime mover must run at a constant speed (RPM) to maintain the required 50 Hz or 60 Hz AC line frequency. For example, an EMD locomotive operating in HEP mode will run the prime mover at a constant 900 RPM (which is full RPM), driving the generator at 1500 RPM (50 Hz) or 1800 RPM (60 Hz) through a gearbox. For noise reduction purposes, the locomotive's main (traction) generator can also be configured to supply HEP, usually at 600 or 720 RPM. However, this mode is only available when the locomotive is stationary.
The advent of power electronics has allowed the prime mover to operate over a larger speed range and still supply a constant HEP voltage and frequency by means of inverters.
When derived from the prime mover, HEP is generated at the expense of traction power. For example, the General Electric 3200 horsepower (2.4 MW) P32 and 4000 horsepower (3.0 MW) Genesis-Series P40 locomotives are derated to 2900 (2.2 MW) and 3650 horsepower (2.72 MW), respectively, when supplying HEP.
Electrical loading
HEP power supplies the lighting, HVAC, dining car kitchen and battery charging loads. Individual car electrical loading ranges from 20 kW for a typical car to more than 150 kW for a Dome car with kitchen and dining area, such as Princess Tours Ultra-Dome cars operating in Alaska.
Because of the lengths of trains and the high power requirements, HEP is supplied, in North America, as three-phase AC at 480-V (standard in the US and for Canada's VIA), 575-V (GO Transit, Toronto), or rarely 600-V. Transformers are fitted in each car for reduction to lower voltages.
In the UK, ETS is supplied at 800-V to 1000-V AC/DC two pole (400 or 600-A), 1500-V AC two pole (800-A) or at 415-V 3 phase on the HST
Alternatives
Although most locomotive-hauled trains take power directly from the locomotive, there have been examples (mainly in continental Europe) where restaurant cars would take power directly from the overhead wires.
Old Colony and Newport Scenic Railway
The Old Colony and Newport Railway (reporting mark OCN) is a heritage railroad in Rhode Island.
It operates passenger excursion trains on what is known as the "Newport Secondary Line" from downtown Newport, Rhode Island to Middletown, Rhode Island. All trains are operated by volunteers on Sundays.
Equipment
The Old Colony and Newport has three locomotives; two General Electric 45 Ton locomotives, numbered 4764 and 84. Both are of 1940s vintage and both have served with the armed services in their lifetimes. They were built with two Cummins over-the-road diesel truck engines (one in front, one in back), rated at 150 horsepower. These were linked to electric generators that provide electricity to traction motors (one per truck, linked on the outside by siderods). Both are equipped with full air train brakes and straight air locomotive brakes as well as handbrakes.
The 84 recently underwent a major overhaul that was funded by several grants, and has been returned to its original state mechanically, with both engines working. The 4764, not as fortunate, only has one operating engine (the north engine). An interesting note is that the 84 actually operates backwards; when it was put on the tracks, it was facing south, towards Newport. However, the OC&N traditionally couples its engines to the North end of the train; so, when the engineer looks out the "front" windshield, he sees the coach he is pulling. However, being a centercab switcher, operation in either direction is easy.
On loan to the OC&N is the Porter-built 70 ton centercab switcher PRSX 7349, owned by John Pratt, of Pratt Railway Services. It is painted black, different from the OC&N's green, white, and black paint scheme, and adorned with its original number plate. Although it looks very similar to the OC&N's General Electric 45 Ton locomotives, it is mechanically very different. Also owned by Mr. Pratt is a blue-and-white B&M Caboose.
The OC&N's bread-and-butter revenue runs consist of its two passenger cars, Coach #74 (the Nelson Blount), né Boston and Maine Railroad, built by The Laconia Car Company in 1904, and an 1884 Parlor Car from the Intercontinental Railway, Parlor Car #53 (the Ruth Blount), named for major contributors to the railway in its beginning days. The Parlor Car very recently received a new roof, a new South-end beam (as both cars are 100% wood construction) and new windows.
Two other cars used by the OC&N are a steel-sided caboose (origin unknown; interior markings indicate usage by Conrail) and a wood-and-steel flatcar (again, origin unknown). They are usually found coupled to the 4764 at the Piers Siding or in Melville, at the South Switch for use on work trains.
Route description
The Old Colony and Newport Scenic Railroad operates along what is known as the "Newport Secondary Line" (NSL), which is owned by the state of Rhode Island.
The NSL was built to provide a rail connection to steam ships operating between Fall River, Massachusetts and New York City. Passengers were conveyed from Boston to Fall River by the Old Colony Railroad where they would board a steam ship that operated on Long Island Sound, arriving at New York City the following morning. As the steam ships had to travel down Narragansett Bay past Newport to reach Long Island Sound, it occurred to the railroad that travel time could be saved by extending the passenger train to Newport.
The NSL runs along the shore of Naragansett Bay from Newport to Portsmouth, a distance of 14 miles. The OC&N bridged the Sakonnet River on the Sakonnet River rail bridge, however its swing mechanism was destroyed and the bridge is out of service.
The OC&NR shares the NSL with the operations of the Newport Dinner Train.
Operations
The Old Colony and Newport Railway operates two revenue trains on Sundays, one leaving downtown Newport at 11:45AM, and another at 1:45AM. It is an 80 minute, 9 mile round trip up the NSL along the Narragansett Bay from Newport to Middletown, Rhode Island and Portsmouth, Rhode Island. It is a beautifully scenic ride, touted as "The Million Dollar View."
The OC&N also runs charters. See their website for details.
The OC&N runs work trains to the north end of the NSL where the Sakonnet River railway bridge used to be, with hopes to tame the wild foliage so that they may run charters to that end of the line without damaging their wood-sided cars, however these trains are not open to the public.
It operates passenger excursion trains on what is known as the "Newport Secondary Line" from downtown Newport, Rhode Island to Middletown, Rhode Island. All trains are operated by volunteers on Sundays.
Equipment
The Old Colony and Newport has three locomotives; two General Electric 45 Ton locomotives, numbered 4764 and 84. Both are of 1940s vintage and both have served with the armed services in their lifetimes. They were built with two Cummins over-the-road diesel truck engines (one in front, one in back), rated at 150 horsepower. These were linked to electric generators that provide electricity to traction motors (one per truck, linked on the outside by siderods). Both are equipped with full air train brakes and straight air locomotive brakes as well as handbrakes.
The 84 recently underwent a major overhaul that was funded by several grants, and has been returned to its original state mechanically, with both engines working. The 4764, not as fortunate, only has one operating engine (the north engine). An interesting note is that the 84 actually operates backwards; when it was put on the tracks, it was facing south, towards Newport. However, the OC&N traditionally couples its engines to the North end of the train; so, when the engineer looks out the "front" windshield, he sees the coach he is pulling. However, being a centercab switcher, operation in either direction is easy.
On loan to the OC&N is the Porter-built 70 ton centercab switcher PRSX 7349, owned by John Pratt, of Pratt Railway Services. It is painted black, different from the OC&N's green, white, and black paint scheme, and adorned with its original number plate. Although it looks very similar to the OC&N's General Electric 45 Ton locomotives, it is mechanically very different. Also owned by Mr. Pratt is a blue-and-white B&M Caboose.
The OC&N's bread-and-butter revenue runs consist of its two passenger cars, Coach #74 (the Nelson Blount), né Boston and Maine Railroad, built by The Laconia Car Company in 1904, and an 1884 Parlor Car from the Intercontinental Railway, Parlor Car #53 (the Ruth Blount), named for major contributors to the railway in its beginning days. The Parlor Car very recently received a new roof, a new South-end beam (as both cars are 100% wood construction) and new windows.
Two other cars used by the OC&N are a steel-sided caboose (origin unknown; interior markings indicate usage by Conrail) and a wood-and-steel flatcar (again, origin unknown). They are usually found coupled to the 4764 at the Piers Siding or in Melville, at the South Switch for use on work trains.
Route description
The Old Colony and Newport Scenic Railroad operates along what is known as the "Newport Secondary Line" (NSL), which is owned by the state of Rhode Island.
The NSL was built to provide a rail connection to steam ships operating between Fall River, Massachusetts and New York City. Passengers were conveyed from Boston to Fall River by the Old Colony Railroad where they would board a steam ship that operated on Long Island Sound, arriving at New York City the following morning. As the steam ships had to travel down Narragansett Bay past Newport to reach Long Island Sound, it occurred to the railroad that travel time could be saved by extending the passenger train to Newport.
The NSL runs along the shore of Naragansett Bay from Newport to Portsmouth, a distance of 14 miles. The OC&N bridged the Sakonnet River on the Sakonnet River rail bridge, however its swing mechanism was destroyed and the bridge is out of service.
The OC&NR shares the NSL with the operations of the Newport Dinner Train.
Operations
The Old Colony and Newport Railway operates two revenue trains on Sundays, one leaving downtown Newport at 11:45AM, and another at 1:45AM. It is an 80 minute, 9 mile round trip up the NSL along the Narragansett Bay from Newport to Middletown, Rhode Island and Portsmouth, Rhode Island. It is a beautifully scenic ride, touted as "The Million Dollar View."
The OC&N also runs charters. See their website for details.
The OC&N runs work trains to the north end of the NSL where the Sakonnet River railway bridge used to be, with hopes to tame the wild foliage so that they may run charters to that end of the line without damaging their wood-sided cars, however these trains are not open to the public.
British Rail Class 220
The Class 220 Voyager is a class of diesel-electric high-speed multiple-unit trains built by Bombardier Transportation for the British train operating company Virgin Trains, but are now operated by CrossCountry. They are air-conditioned throughout, with powered doors and a top speed of 125 mph (200 km/h). They were introduced to replace the thirty-year-old High Speed Train and Class 47 fleets. The trains were built between 2000 and 2001 and the first train entered service on 5 June 2001.
Technical Details
Below are the Technical details for the Class 220 Voyager.
Engine
All coaches are equipped with a Cummins QSK19 diesel engine of 750 hp (560 kW) at 1800rpm. This powers a generator which supplies current to motors driving two axles per coach. A Class 220 Voyager has a maximum range of approximately 1,350 miles (2,170 km) between each refuelling.
Formation
There are 34 Class 220 Voyager trains; numbered 220001 to 220034. They provide 26 seats in first class and 162 seats in standard class. All vehicles are air-conditioned and fitted with at-seat audio entertainment systems and power sockets for laptop computers and mobile phone charging.
The formation of a four car Class 220 Voyager is as follows:
Coach A - First Class and driving cab
Coach C - Standard Class
Coach D - Standard Class with Shop/Buffet counter
Coach F - Standard Class (Quiet Zone) with driving cab and reservable space for four bikes
The first class coach has a yellow rectangle on its front coupler to aid identification as a train approaches a station, as the nature of the Cross-Country network means that trains often get turned around. All Voyagers are maintained at the Central Rivers depot near Burton-on-Trent.
The train interiors provide toilets for disabled people and storage facilities for bicycles.
Brakes
Voyagers make use of rheostatic brakes. This system brakes the train by using the motors of the train in reverse to generate electricity which is then dissipated as heat through resistors situated in a grid on the roof of each coach. This slows the train and saves on brake shoe wear. However, these systems have caused problems: the resistors are known to reach temperatures of up to 500 °C (932 °F). In one incident a small piece of wood from a tree had become lodged in these grids, which then started a fire on the roof of the train. This resulted in the train being evacuated at Cheltenham Spa.[citation needed] Units have also been stopped due to waves breaking over the sea wall at Dawlish in storm conditions and inundating the resistor banks.
Couplers
The Voyagers are fitted with Dellner couplers which are the same type of couplers as the Class 390 Pendolino electric trains used by Virgin West Coast, and they can be coupled together in the event of a failure, although as the electrical systems are not compatible they are not coupled in normal service. The units are also capable of being pulled by Virgin's Thunderbirds, which are Class 57/3 locomotives used for rescue of failed trains that have been named after the eponymous TV series.
Similar trains
The principal differences between the Class 220 Voyager and otherwise very similar Class 221 SuperVoyager fleet are that the Class 221 SuperVoyager is designed to tilt when going around curves in order to allow higher speeds and that the Class 221 SuperVoyager usually consists of five coaches rather than the four coaches of a Class 220 Voyager.
The requirement to tilt means that the bogies are very different in appearance. On the Class 220 the axles are supported by bearings between the wheels and the outside face of the wheel is visible. The bogies of the Class 221 have outside bearings and the wheels are obscured from view by the frames.
When operated by Virgin the two types had differently coloured Virgin 'shield' logos on the nose of the train to aid identification; the Class 220 Voyager had a silver background to the shields and the Class 221 SuperVoyager had red background.
The Class 222 Meridian/Pioneer trains operated by East Midlands Trains and First Hull Trains are also similar, but are, according to Bombardier Transportation, '80% new train'.
Current Operations
CrossCountry
As the winner of the new Cross Country franchise, CrossCountry have now inherited all of the 34 Voyagers from Virgin CrossCountry. CrossCountry have the following plans regarding the Voyager trains.
They wish to introduce more services on key routes.
CrossCountry will remove the onboard shop and have indeed already done so on one unit.
Former Operations
Virgin Trains
Virgin Trains were the sole operator of all Class 220 Voyager trains when they were introduced in 2001, but this changed when the new CrossCountry rail franchise began on 11 November 2007. Until 8 December 2007 the Voyager fleet was shared between Virgin Trains and CrossCountry. Virgin Trains no longer operate any Class 220 Voyagers. They still operate some Class 221 SuperVoyagers for their West Coast services.
NZR DSG class
The DSG class is a type of diesel-electric shunting locomotive used in New Zealand. The class shares a central cab design with the smaller DSC class shunting locomotive, and is twin-engined. Meanwhile, the very similarly designed, single-engined DSJ class, has a cab that is offset from the centre.
The DSG class shunters were built in four batches from 1981 to 1983 and have seen widespread use throughout New Zealand, particularly in larger yards and for port traffic. They also see service on sections of mainline, performing regional shunt duties in a number of areas.
British Rail Class 222
The British Rail Class 222 is a diesel-electric multiple unit high-speed train capable of 125 mph (200 km/h). Twenty-seven units have been built by Bombardier Transportation.
The Class 222 is similar to the Class Class 220 Voyager and Class 221 SuperVoyager trains used by CrossCountry and Virgin Trains but units have a different interior, which is less cramped than the Voyagers. The Class 222 trains have more components fitted under the floors to free up space within the body.
Technical details
Below are the technical details for the Class 222 Meridian / Pioneer.
Engine
All coaches are equipped with a Cummins QSK19 diesel engine of 750 hp (560 kW) at 1800rpm. This powers a generator which supplies current to motors driving two axles per coach. Approximately 1,350 miles (2,170 km) can be travelled between each refuelling.
Formation
Class 222 units are currently running in the following formations:
East Midlands Trains: seven cars with 236 standard seats and 106 first-class seats.
Coach A - Standard Class with driving cab and reservable space for four bikes
Coach C - Standard Class
Coach D - Standard Class
Coach E - Standard Class with Shop/Buffet counter
Coach F - First Class
Coach G - First Class
Coach J - First Class and driving cab
East Midlands Trains: five cars with 192 standard seats and 50 first-class seats.
Coach A - Standard Class with driving cab and reservable space for four bikes
Coach B - Standard Class
Coach C - Standard Class
Coach D - Standard Class / First Class
Coach G - First Class and driving cab
First Hull Trains: four cars
Coach A - First Class and driving cab
Coach B - First Class / Standard Class
Coach C - Standard Class
Coach D - Standard Class with driving cab and reservable space for bikes
Brakes
Class 222 units make use of rheostatic braking (the same as the Class 220 Voyager and Class 221 SuperVoyager trains). This system brakes the train by using the motors of the train in reverse, to generate electricity which is then dissipated as heat through resistors situated on the roof of each coach. This slows the train and saves on brake shoe wear.
Couplers
The Class 222 are fitted with Dellner couplers, as used on the Class 220 Voyager and Class 221 SuperVoyager trains, though these units cannot be coupled to work together in service because the electrical systems are incompatible. They can be coupled to push or pull each other though if a unit becomes faulty. The first-class end of the train is indicated by a yellow bar on the coupler.
Straight-6
The straight-6 or inline-6 engine (often abbreviated I6 or L6) is a six cylinder internal combustion engine with all six cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or an inclined plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is sometimes called a slant-6. The straight-6 layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in relatively low manufacturing cost combined with much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders.
Displacement range
Usually a straight-6 is used for engine displacements between about 2.0 and 5.0 litres (120-308 CID) in automobiles. It is also sometimes used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running, tended to be rather expensive to manufacture and they are inevitably physically longer than alternative layouts. The smallest production straight-6 was found in the Benelli 750 Sei motorcycle, displacing 747.7 cubic centimetres (45.63 cu in) (0.75 L). However, because it is a fully balanced configuration, the straight-6 can be scaled up to very large sizes for industrial and marine use, such as the 16-litre Volvo diesel engine used in heavy vehicles.The largest are used to power ships. They use diesel fuel and have displacements as high as 1,820 litres (64 cu ft) per cylinder.
Modern trends
Historically, straight-6 engines were introduced much earlier than V6s, and while the first straight-6 was manufactured in 1904, it was 1950 before a production V6 was introduced. V6s (unlike crossplane V8s) had intrinsic vibration problems that were difficult to eliminate without modern computer aided design techniques. The length of the straight-6 was not a major concern in the older front-engine/rear-wheel drive vehicles, but the modern move to the more space-efficient front-engine/front-wheel drive and transverse engine ("east-west") configurations in smaller cars caused the much shorter length of the V6 to become a major advantage. As a result, in recent decades automobile manufacturers have replaced most of their straight-6 engines (and many of their V8s) with V6 engines.
Exceptions to the shift to V6 engines include BMW, which specializes in high-performance straight-6s, Volvo, which designed a compact straight-6 engine/transmission package to fit transversely in its larger cars, and the Australian Ford Falcon, which still uses a straight-6 configuration. Straight-6s also continue to be commonly used in medium to large trucks, and sport utility vehicles, where engine length is less of a concern. In 2002 General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-4, straight-5 and straight-6 GM Atlas engine line.
Balance and smoothness
An inline six engine is in perfect primary and secondary mechanical balance, which can be achieved without using a balance shaft. The engine is in primary balance because the front and rear trio of cylinders are mirror images and the pistons move in pairs. That is, piston #1 balances #6, #2 balances #5, and #3 balances #4, largely eliminating the polar rocking motion that would otherwise result. Secondary imbalance is avoided because an inline six cylinder crankshaft has six crank throws arranged in three planes displaced at 120 degrees. The result is that differences in piston speed at any given point in rotation are effectively canceled.
An inline four cylinder or V6 engine without a balance shaft will experience secondary dynamic imbalance, resulting in engine vibration. As a general rule, the forces arising from any dynamic imbalance increase as the square of the engine speed—that is, if the speed doubles, vibration will increase by a factor of four. In contrast, inline six engines have no primary or secondary imbalances, and with carefully designed crankshaft vibration dampers to absorb torsional vibration, will run more smoothly at the same crankshaft speed (RPM). This characteristic has made the inline six popular in some European sports-luxury cars, where smooth high-speed performance and good fuel economy are desirable. As engine reciprocating forces increase with the cube of piston mass, inline six is a preferred configuration for large truck engines.
British Rail Class 221
The Class 221 SuperVoyager is a train currently used by Virgin Trains and CrossCountry in the United Kingdom. They were built by Bombardier Transportation between 2000 and 2002 for the British train operating companies Virgin CrossCountry and Virgin West Coast. The first Class 221 SuperVoyager entered traffic between Birmingham and Brighton on 12 April 2002. The Class 221 SuperVoyagers are similar to the Class 220 Voyager units, but they are built with a tilting mechanism offering up to six degrees of tilt to allow faster speeds on curved tracks. They have a maximum speed of 125 mph (200 km/h).
The coach bodies, the engines and most of the equipment of the two Voyager train types are the same, but the bogies are very different; the Class 220 Voyager bogies have inside bearings which expose the whole of the wheel faces, whilst the Class 221 SuperVoyager bogies have a more traditional-looking outside-framed bogie. A five-car set provides 26 seats in first class and 224 in standard. A four-car set provides 26 seats in first class and 162 in standard. All vehicles are air-conditioned and fitted with at-seat audio entertainment systems and power sockets for laptop computers and mobile phone charging. Below are the technical details for the Class 221 SuperVoyager.
Engine
All coaches are equipped with a Cummins QSK19 diesel engine of 560 kW (750 hp) at 1800rpm. This powers a generator which supplies current to motors driving two axles per coach. 1200 miles can be travelled between refuellings.
Formation
There are 44 Class 221 SuperVoyager trains, numbered 221101 to 221144. 221101 to 221140 are five-car trains built for Virgin Cross Country. 221141 to 221144 are four-car sets which were intended for use by Virgin West Coast on the London - North Wales service. However, it has not worked out like this, and the North Wales trains are five-car sets from the Cross-Country batch, with the four car trains being used on Cross Country and Birmingham - Scotland workings.
The formation of a five-car Class 221 SuperVoyager is as follows:
Coach A - First Class and driving cab
Coach B - Standard Class
Coach C - Standard Class
Coach D - Standard Class with Shop/Buffet counter
Coach F - Standard Class (Quiet Zone) with driving cab and reservable space for four bikes
A four-car Class 221 SuperVoyager does not have a Coach B.
The first class coach has a yellow stripe on its front coupler to aid identification as a train approaches a station, as the nature of the Cross-Country network means that trains often get turned around.
All Voyagers are maintained at the Central Rivers depot near Burton-on-Trent, with limited maintenance also taking place at Crewe and Polmadie.
Amphibious Assault Vehicle
The Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV)—official designation AAV-7A1 (formerly known as LVT-7) is a fully tracked amphibious landing vehicle manufactured by FMC Corporation (now BAE Systems Land and Armaments).
The AAV-7A1 is the current amphibious troop transport of the United States Marine Corps. It is used by USMC Assault Amphibian Battalions to land the surface assault elements of the landing force and their equipment in a single lift from assault shipping during amphibious operations to inland objectives and to conduct mechanized operations and related combat support in subsequent mechanized operations ashore. It is also operated by other forces.
Development
The LVT-7 was first introduced in 1972 as a replacement for the LVT-5. In 1982, FMC was contracted to conduct the LVT-7 Service Life Extension Program, which converted the LVT-7 vehicles to the improved AAV-7A1 vehicle by adding an improved engine, transmission, and weapons system and improving the overall maintainability of the vehicle. The Cummins VT400 diesel engine replaced the GM 8V53T, and this was driven through FMC's HS-400-3A1 transmission. The hydraulic traverse and elevation of the weapon station was replaced by electric motors, which eliminated the danger from hydraulic fluid fires. The suspension and shock absorbers were strengthened as well. The fuel tank was made safer, and a fuel-burning smoke generator system was added. Eight smoke grenade launchers were also placed around the armament station. The headlight clusters were housed in a square recess instead of the earlier round type. The driver was provided with an improved instrument panel, a night vision device, and a new ventilation system was installed. These upgraded vehicles were originally called LVT-7A1, but the Marine Corps renamed the LVT-7A1 to AAV-7A1 in 1984.
Another improvement was added in the form of a Cadillac Gage weapon station or Up-Gunned Weapon Station (UGWS) which was armed with both a .50 cal (12.7 mm) M2HB machine gun and a Mk-19 40 mm grenade launcher.
Enhanced Applique Armor Kits (EAAK) were developed for the AAV-7A1, and the added weight of the new armor necessitated the addition of a bow plane kit when operating afloat.
The Assault Amphibious Vehicle Reliability, Availability, Maintainability/Rebuild to Standard (AAV RAM/RS) Program has provided for a replacement of both the engine and suspension with US Army M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV) components modified for the AAV. The ground clearance has returned to 16 inches and the horsepower to ton ratio has changed from 13 to 1 back to 17 to 1. The AAV RAM/RS rebuild encompassed all AAV systems and components in order to return the AAV back to the original vehicle's performance specifications and ensure acceptable Fleet Marine Force (FMF) AAV readiness ratings until the EFV is operational. Introduction of the BFV components and the rebuild to standard effort is expected to reduce maintenance costs for the remaining life of the AAV through the year 2013.
Dodge D Series
The D Series was a line of pickup trucks sold by the Dodge division of American automaker Chrysler Corporation from 1961 to 1980. After 1980, the trucks were renamed as the Dodge Ram and the same basic design was retained until the 1994 introduction of a completely redesigned Ram. The D Series shared its AD platform with the Dodge Ramcharger/Plymouth Trailduster twins.
The body offered the then-traditional step-side bed, with distinct fenders as an option. As default, it introduced the first Virgil Exner-inspired "Swept-Line" bed where the bed was the width of the vehicle and the fenders were inboard, as can be seen in virually all modern pickup trucks.
The D Series used the familiar Chrysler Slant 6 engine in displacements of 170 cu in, 198 cu in and 225 cu in as the base models, depending on the year. (The 198 was relatively rare, available as the base engine only from 1969 to 1973). All of Chrysler's larger engines, with the notable exception of the Chrysler Hemi engine were available as factory options.
Another innovation was the introduction of an alternator rather than a generator for electrical power. A three-speed automatic transmission was a major advance - the truck used a two-speed automatic less than a decade earlier.
Yet another innovation, a "Crew Cab" (four-door) body style was introduced in 1963, a first for a factory pickup. Prior crew cabs were custom conversion jobs. A "Club Cab" was also available for 1973, providing transverse seating for either a single third passenger or two small third and fourth passengers (most often, the Club Cab was used as extra cargo space).
ACMAT
ACMAT (Ateliers de Construction Mécanique de L'Atlantique, also known as ALM-ACMAT), is a French producer of cross-country and tactical military vehicles since 1958. Known for their reliability, simplicity, ruggedness and their 80% (over 3,500) commonality of parts across the entire product line, these vehicles were originally targeted at African and Asian countries who could not afford more expensive vehicles. The ACMAT company built their vehicles based on standardisation, commonality of parts and components, and on interchangeability; parts are interchangeable with vehicles built 30 years ago. Parts commonality includes cabs, structural components, engines and drive trains. ACMAT uses many of the same parts for all of its line of vehicles. They even produce an armoured variant of both the 4x4 and 6x6 versions of the VLRA.
Many French fire brigades also use ACMAT vehicles due to their lower cost and 4WD ability. Several thousand are in use by 42 countries including France and the Irish Defence Forces. ACMAT also designs, manufactures and builds trailers, shelters and generators. ACMAT has exported over 85 percent of the 10,000 plus vehicles it produced 46 different countries. As of 22 May 2006, ACMAT is a wholly owned subsidiary of Renault Trucks.
Vehicles
VLRA
VLRA TPK 4.25 Pamela carrying the Mistral Surface-to-Air Missile systemVLRA,(Véhicules de liaison, de reconnaissance et d'appui) - for reconnaissance, escort and support variant. Available in 4x4 and 6x6 versions.
4x4 Versions
Available in several sizes:
Short Chassis: 3.3 m, 3.6m, and 3.9 m; 1,500 kg to 2,500 kg
Long chassis: 4.2 m and 4.3 m; 2,500 kg to 3,500 kg
TPK 4.15 SM3 - 12 man transport
TPK 4.15 STL - General purpose transport
TPK 4.15 FSP - Long Range Patrol Vehicle
TPK 4.15 LRM - Multiple rocket launcher carrier
TPK 4.15 ASPIC - Weapons carrier
TPK 4.15 PACF - Weapons carrier
TTK 4.20 BL - the armoured variant
TPK 4.20 SC - 2500-litre tanker version
TPK 4.20 PCR - Radio Command Post
TPK 4.20 SL7 - Light recovery duty vehicle
TPK 4.20 SM2 - Troop Carrier
TPK 4.20 SAM - Ambulance
TPK 4.20 VCT - Command and transmission vehicle
TPK 4.20 VPL2 - Scout car
TPK 4.20M ALM - cargo
TPK 4.25 SAm - Ambulance
TPK 4.30 BUS - 28 passenger bus (short chassis) or 34 passenger (long chassis)
also available in a command vehicle conversion.
TPK 4.30 SAM - Workshop
TPK 4.35 SCM - Mechanical handling vehicle
TPK 4.35 SM - Troop carrier
TPK 4.35 SM2 - Truck
TPK 4.35 VPC - Convoy protection vehicle/weapons carrier
6x6 vehicles
TPK 6.35 TSR - Semi-truck, 8t to 10t trailer towing capacity
TPK 6.40 SB - 6000 kg tipper/dump truck
TPK 6.40 SC - 4000-litre bowser/tanker
TPK 6.40 SG - Tar spreader
TPK 6.40 SH - Shelter carrier
TPK 6.40 SM2 - 6x6 troop carrier
TPK 6.40 SWT - Recovery vehicle
TPK 6.50 BL - The armoured variant available as an APC or armoured crew cab/cargo vehicle.
TPK 6.50 SH - Shelter carrier
TPK 6.60 SH - Shelter carrier
VCT (Véhicule de Commandement et de Transmissions)
VLRB
VLRB (Véhicule de Liaison et de Reconnaissance Blindé) - The TCM 420 BL 6 is powered by a four cylinder Cummins turbo-diesel Euro # which has 167 horsepower (125 kW) at 2,500 rpm. It has a five speed automatic transmission and a two speed transfer case. One can be carried in a C-160 Transall and two can be carried in a C-130 Hercules. The armoured verion can be armed with a 12.7 mm heavy machine gun, or a 20 mm or 30 mm automatic cannon.
FCLV - Future Command and Liaison Vehicle, a British Army light wheeled armoured vehicle program. Offered by Hunting Engineering in partnership with ACMAT, the FCLV was essentially a modified VLRB. The IVECO contender eventually won the bid process
VLA
The VLA (Véhicules logistiques de l'avant) is a cab-over design, available in 4x4, 6x6, 8x8, with a carrying capacity of 4,000 kg to 8,000 kg. It is primarily designed to carry pallets.
WPK 4.40 SH/STL 4x4 4ton, shelter/pallet
WPK 6.65 SH/STL 6x6 up to 15-foot (4.6 m) Container/pallet system "Hunter"
WPK 6.65 APL up to 20-foot (6.1 m) containers/pallets
WPK 8.75 SH 8x8 up to 20-foot (6.1 m) containers
Variants
ACMAT offers over 70 variants including the following: command car, commando vehicle, police vehicles, personnel carriers, cargo carriers, ambulances, mortar carrier, weapons carriers, communications vehicles, cross country bus, wireless vehicle, workshops vehicles, vehicles with cranes, fire fighting vehicles, fluid carriers(water and/or POL), Semi-trucks, multiple rocket launcher carriers, dump trucks and more.
VLocity
The VLocity 160 (normally just VLocity) is a high speed diesel multiple unit train manufactured by Bombardier Transportation (contract inherited from Adtranz) for use on regional rail lines in Victoria, Australia, running under V/Line. As of 2006 they are the newest in V/Line's fleet, the previous being the Sprinter manufactured by Goninan (now United Rail).
History
Design origins
The VLocity is an evolution of the Xplorer/Endeavour railcars built by ABB Transportation (now Bombardier Transportation) for CountryLink and CityRail, respectively, in NSW, themselves being derivatives of Transwa Australind railcars. National Express Group specified the NSW design as part of its bid to operate V/Line under the public transport privatisation scheme of the Kennett government in the late 1990s. The train was originally known as a V/Locity (with the slash character).
The initial design called for a maximum running speed of 145km/h, this was later modified to 160km/h as part of the Regional Fast Rail project of the Bracks Labor government.
Manufacturing and testing
38 VLocity two-car DMUs were ordered from the Bombardier Transportation plant in Dandenong. While the design was frozen before National Express Group exited its public transport contracts in 2003, following publicity, drinking fountains, previously not provided, were added to the specifications.
Late testing revealed noise levels that were too high in the cabin,delaying the introduction of the trains into service while the completed sets were modified.
Into service
The VLocity was introduced into service on the Ballarat line on December 22, 2005. Services on the Geelong and Bendigo lines were introduced on February 3, 2006 and February 24, 2006 respectively. Services to Traralgon and Seymour were introduced in September 2006.
Tables were installed in one unit, VL28, for evaluation purposes.
160km/h services officially started on September 3, 2006, to Ballarat, Bendigo and Geelong, and to Traralgon on September 15, 2006. Outside these areas, where the VLocity is still accredited to operate for revenue passenger operations, they may travel up to 130km/h. As part of the 160km/h deployment, trains without TPWS, such as the majority of freight trains, may only travel at 80km/h on RFR track.
From 2010 some Ballarat line services will be extended to Maryborough.
Additions to the fleet
After the initial order of 28 units, a further two VLocity units were later ordered to bring the total to 40, along with 22 new intermediate trailers to go in the middle of existing VLocity sets (extending them to three carriages each). The first 14 were promised as part of the 2006 State Election campaign by the Labor Party in November 2006, and the order being placed in December the same year, and the order for the next eight announced on 12 October 2007. The first centre car, numbered 1341, has been placed in the middle of set 1141-1241, so that is now a three-car set. As of December 2008, seven such centre cars are now in service (in VLocities numbered VL35 to VL41).
In July 2008 the State Government unveiled a $236 million package of regional rail improvements, including nine new 3 car units, and a additional centre car to be inserted into an existing 2 car unit.
In December 2008 the state government announced an order for an additional eight 3 car units.
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